Intrinsic rate of increase and age at maturity are unknown. Maximum age is approximately one year (Rodhouse and Hatfield 1990).

Squid are attracted to light (Roper et al. 1984), and Argentine Squid are lured to the surface by jigging vessels using underwater and surface lamps (FIGIS 2004).

Argentine Squid inhabit Southwestern Atlantic waters between 20° and 55° S off eastern South America to 40 to 45° W. Scientists consider there to be 2 to 4 populations of Argentine Squid, based on length at maturity, spawning grounds, time of spawning, distribution of early life stages, juveniles, and adults. The most commercially important population, the Southpatagonian or winter-spawning stock, spawns and hatches between 28 and 38° S (Laptikhovsky et al. 2001).

The lifecycle of Argentine Squid is integrally tied to the oceanography of the Southwest Atlantic, which includes the Falkland, Brazil, and Antarctic Circumpolar Currents. Inter-annual changes in the convergence of the Falkland and Brazil Currents create variability in oceanographic conditions (e.g., sea surface temperature) in the squids’ hatching habitat, which greatly influences the abundance of squid in the fishable population from year to year (Laptikhovsky 2001; Waluda et al. 2001).

Low catches of Argentine Squid in 2002 coincided with an unusually intense Falkland Current. The movement of the cold Falkland Current into the migration path of Argentine Squid, which prefer warmer water, likely prevented them from moving into traditional fishing grounds near the Falkland Islands (FIG 2002).

Argentine Squid mature within one year (Rodhouse and Hatfield 1990). Argentine squid are highly fecund and produce 75,000 to 1,200,000 eggs (Laptikhovsky and Nigmatullin 1993).

Abundance of Argentine Squid is difficult to estimate due to its short lifespan, complicated population structure, and the high inter-annual variability in its population size. Long-term catch limits based on maximum sustainable yield (MSY; i.e., the largest average catch that can be sustainably taken from a population under average environmental conditions) that protect the species’ reproductive capacity cannot be estimated, because variable, inter-annual changes in the environmental conditions largely determine year-to-year abundance of Argentine Squid (Basson et al. 1996).

Managers do not know the abundance of Argentine Squid. In 2002, the major, commercially fished population (the winter spawners) was estimated to number 1.3 billion squid. However, this estimate excludes the other 2 to 3 populations of the species. In general, managers use recruitment data gathered from annual surveys to infer information about the size of the fishable population for the coming year’s fishery. Catch and effort data indicate the relative size of squid populations, as well as the timing of their annual migrations. Catches peaked in 1999 at 1.14 million metric tons (mt), but then dropped over the next three years to a low of 511,087 mt in 2002, the latest year for which there is total catch data for fisheries in Argentine, Falkland Islands, and international waters (FAO 2004).

In 2004, Argentine Squid fisheries suffered the lowest catches on record, and spawning biomass was also estimated to be at the lowest level ever observed (SAFC 2004). Catch data from jigging vessels fishing in international waters is currently unavailable (Laptikhovsky, pers. comm., 2005).

From 2001 to 2002, catches in Falkland Islands waters plummeted from 150,523 metric tons (mt) to 12,372 mt. Catches recovered to 103,330 mt in 2003, but then dropped to the lowest level in more than 15 years, 1709 mt, in 2004 (Laptikhovsky, pers. comm., 2005). During 2002, the Falkland Current was relatively intense, and fisheries managers believed that the resulting cold sea surface temperatures prevented squid from moving into the Falkland Islands’ fishing zones (FIG 2002).

Catches in Argentine waters have also dropped over the last five years: from 338,117 in 1999 to a low of 74,594 mt in 2004. In 2004, recruitment, total catches in Falkland Islands and Argentine waters, and observed spawning biomass were the lowest on record (SAFC 2004). Data are not available for fisheries in international waters for those years, except to say that the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimated that total catches of Argentine Squid in the Southwest Atlantic dropped from 1.14 million mt in 1999 to 511,087 mt in 2002 (FIGIS 2005).

Although catch levels are highly correlated with inter-annual changes in environmental conditions that influence recruitment levels (FIG 2002; Laptikhovsky et al. 2001; Waluda et al. 2001), we chose to subtract here, given the continued decreases in catches over the last 5 years.

In a 1998 report on global fisheries at risk, Weber concluded that the Argentine Squid fishery was at a moderate level of risk. However, this species is not listed as overfished by any of the management agencies that oversee South Atlantic fisheries.

Jigging light vessels take the vast majority of the annual Argentine Squid catch. Many jigging vessels use jigging machines, which constantly move the lures on the vertical fishing lines to attract the squid (FIGIS 2004).

Bottom trawling vessels in Argentine and Falkland Islands waters catch squid as bycatch. From 1995 to 2003, trawlers took 1.6 to 10.3% of the total catch in Falkland Islands waters (Laptikhovsky, pers. comm., 2005). For example, in 2003 trawlers took 1622 metric tons (mt) of Argentine Squid, whereas jigging vessels took 101,868 million mt (FIG 2004). On the high seas, trawlers also take a minimal proportion of the annual catch (Laptikhovsky, pers. comm., 2005).

We chose to award a high score of 3.00 points here, because jigging vessels, which account for nearly all of the Argentine Squid landings, fish near the surface and do minimal damage to habitat.

The winter-spawning and most commercially important population of Argentine Squid reproduces in deep waters off north Argentina, Uruguay, and south Brazil, where there are no fisheries for the squid. Summer shelf-spawners experience moderate fishing pressure, but there is no indication that fishing endangers this population (Laptikhovsky, pers. comm., 2005).

Although spawning habitats of Argentine Squid are not expressly protected, we chose to not subtract points here, as there are no indications that critical habitats of this species are threatened.

Oceanic habitat of Argentine Squid is likely robust enough to support healthy populations.

Effects of jigging gear on habitat are likely minimal.

Effects of jigging gear on habitat are likely minimal.

Strong management of Argentine Squid fisheries in Argentine and Falkland Islands waters and poor management in international waters compels us to award a medium score of 2.00 points here.

In the Southwest Atlantic, vessels from several South American and Asian countries participate in the large Argentine Squid fishery, which caught more than 1.1 million metric tons (mt) of the species in 2002 (FAO 2004). Argentine Squid are migratory, and fishing operations follow the species’ seasonal migration from its spawning and hatching grounds in international and Argentine waters to Falkland Islands waters. Successful management of fisheries that target short-lived species like Argentine Squid, whose population abundance is affected by inter-annual changes in environmental conditions, requires that a sufficient number of mature squid survive the fishing season (i.e., do not get caught and killed in the fishery) to spawn and produce next year’s recruits. Fishery managers try to ensure an adequate level of spawner “escapement” each year by controlling fishing effort with limited license allocation and fishing seasons, monitoring catches during the season, and closing the fishery early if catches exceed the estimated sustainable threshold (Basson et al. 1996).

Management authority of the Argentine Squid fishery is spread among two inter-country commissions and several national governments. The Technical Commission for the Maritime Front establishes the dates for the squid-fishing season in the Argentinean/Uruguayan Common Fishing Zone (Chaluleu 2002). The South Atlantic Fisheries Commission (SAFC), established in 1991, collects data on fishing effort, coordinates joint research, and recommends management measures to Argentina’s and the Falkland Islands’ fisheries agencies (SAFC 1990).

Record-low recruitment and catches in 2004 compelled managers to set the conservation threshold target (i.e. the biomass of squid allowed to escape capture by fisheries and reproduce) for the 2005 season at 90,000 metric tons (mt) at the end of April, which is at the height of the Argentine Squid’s spawning season. This threshold level allows many more squid to reproduce before being captured; in years of average to high abundance, managers set the threshold at 40,000 mt of squid at the end of the season that are alive to reproduce (SAFC 2004).

Coastal nations in the Southwest Atlantic have developed regulations for Argentine Squid fisheries operating within their EEZs, but the high-seas fishery is largely unregulated (FIG 2002). High-seas management requires cooperation between the countries participating in common high-seas fisheries and the establishment of an official body or platform for debate at an international level (Portela 1991). Currently there is no Regional Fisheries Management Organization for the Southwest Atlantic (Barton, pers. comm., 2005). Also, neither South Korea nor Taiwan, two of the major participants in the high-seas fishery, are signatories to the U.N. Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, which promotes international cooperation in the management of highly migratory and straddling stocks in international waters, and provides guidelines for the effective enforcement of fishery regulations (UN 2001).

The Falkland Islands Fishery Department (FIFD) manages the Argentine Squid fishery in the Falkland Islands Interim Conservation and Management Zone (FICZ), which covers a 150 nautical mile (nm) radius, and in the Outer Conservation Zone (FOCZ), which extends the managed area to 200 nm to the north, east, and south of the islands. The fishing season in Falkland Islands waters is from 15 February to the 15 June. The conservation target set by managers is 40,000 metric tons, and managers control fishing effort with license requirements that allow fishing for a fixed period of time. The FIFD monitors catches on a daily basis and closes the fishery when total catches approach the conservation threshold (FIG 2004).

In Argentina, the Federal Fisheries Council establishes the objectives for scientific and technical research, and the National Institute for Fisheries Research and Development carries out the research and population assessments. Illegal fishing by foreign vessels is a problem in Argentina’s squid fishery. In recent years, more than a hundred foreign vessels a year have been sighted in the Argentinean EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone), and often ships are painted red to look like Argentine vessels (Schonberger and Agar 2001).

The degree to which Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated fishing for Argentine Squid occurs in national and international waters is unknown. Illegal fishing in Argentine waters is occurring, sometimes by vessels painted red to look like Argentine vessels (Schonberger and Agar 2001). The high-seas fishery for Argentine Squid is not well monitored or controlled (Weber 1998), and high-seas catch data in general are believed to be suspect (Portela 1991).

In Argentine and Falkland Islands waters, however, there is close monitoring of squid fisheries by international commissions and national agencies. The Technical Commission for the Maritime Front coordinates research between Argentina and Uruguay (Chaluleu 2002). The South Atlantic Fisheries Commission collects data on fishing effort and coordinates joint research projects between Argentina’s and the Falkland Islands’ fisheries agencies (SAFC 1990). Each February, at the start of the major squid-fishing season, Argentine and Falkland Islands managers conduct a joint research cruise to quantify recruitment to the Argentine Squid population.

In Argentina, the Federal Fisheries Council establishes the objectives for scientific and technical research, and the National Institute for Fisheries Research and Development carries out the research and population assessments (Schonberger and Agar 2001).

The Falkland Islands Fisheries Department (FIFD) closely monitors catches and fishing effort during the Argentine Squid fishing season by requiring daily catch reports and supporting an observer program. The FIFD contracts the Renewable Resources Assessment Group, which is based at the Imperial College of London, to carry out population assessments, make spawning stock biomass projections, and recommend fishery management measures. They use a Leslie-DeLury depletion analysis to project the impact of fishing on the spawning population during the season. However, Arkhipkin and Middleton (2002) believe that the analysis only reliable after catches have peaked during the season.

Because Falkland Islands’ fisheries for Argentine Squid are well monitored and Argentine and high-seas fisheries require closer monitoring of fishing effort and catches, we neither subtract nor add for this factor.

Argentine Squid are not overfished; therefore, no recovery plan is needed.

The Falkland Islands Fishery Department (FIFD) controls fishing effort within the islands’ waters with license limitations in-season monitoring of catches, and early closures. It also requires that all vessels that fish within its waters must also register for high-seas licenses and report daily positions and catches to the FIFD (FIG 2005).

In an effort to reduce fishing effort in the high seas, where the FIFD does not have jurisdiction, the department developed Voluntary Restraint Agreements (VRAs), which had moderate success before Argentina opened its waters to foreign fleets in 1993. Export subsidies, cheap squid fishing licenses, and the lack of VRAs in Argentine waters have caused Argentine catches to increase tremendously (FIG 2005).

In light of the efforts by the Argentine government to increase fishing effort and the efforts by the Falkland Islands to decrease squid fishing effort, we chose to neither subtract nor add here.

Little is known about bycatch in Argentine Squid jigging operations, which account for more than 95% of the annual squid catch in Falkland Islands waters and an unknown, but similarly high proportion in Argentine and high-seas fisheries. Bycatch is as little as 0.1% of the total catch, and incidentally caught species include the squids, Martialia sp. and Moroteuthis sp., and finfish (Laptikhovsky, pers. comm., 2005).

Bycatch in daytime trawling operations (which are often carried out by the same vessels that jig for squid at night) has been examined by researchers. Argentine Squid generally constitute more than 95% of the catch in the Patagonian shelf bottom-trawl fishery. The small bycatch includes juvenile Loligo gahi squid, Common Hake, Southern Cod, Southern Blue Whiting, Whiphake, and Grenadier. The fishery also discards Argentine Squid flesh leftover, which is estimated to be about 10% of the total squid catch weight, from onboard processing of mantles, arms, and flesh for squid meal and squid oil (Laptikhovsky et al. 1999).

There is anecdotal evidence of interactions between Argentine Squid jigging fleets and seabirds. In 2003, Falklands Conservation, a non-profit environmental organization, conducted a pilot study to explore this issue. It found that jigging lures occasionally hook penguins, but fishers are generally able to release the birds with only minor puncture wounds from the lures. Fisheries observers have not recorded any direct seabird mortalities (Sullivan 2004).

There is also anecdotal evidence that some jigging vessels are deliberately catching or keeping albatrosses caught on lures for food. The extent of this practice is unknown, but observers have recorded 4 instances of Black-browed Albatross corpses with their entire body or legs and breast removed floating near jigging vessels. Whether they are only eating already drowned albatrosses or are killing those they capture and haul onboard alive is unclear (Sullivan 2004). However, fisheries researcher Vladimir Laptikhovsky (pers. comm., 2005) said that there is no real threat to albatrosses by jiggers, as they do not react to lures. The Falklands Conservation report recommended that the fishery record levels of incidental seabird mortality, increase observer coverage in the fishery if necessary, develop measures to reduce seabird mortality, educate crews of jigging vessels, and encourage all countries involved in the fishery to do the same (Sullivan 2004).

Since there is a low level of bycatch associated with Argentine Squid trawling operations and only anecdotal evidence for bycatch of albatrosses in Argentine Squid fisheries, we chose to award a high score of 3.00 points here.

Black-browed Albatrosses are Endangered (IUCN 2004). There is only anecdotal and limited evidence for bycatch of this species in Argentine Squid fisheries, however, so we chose to not subtract here.